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- https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/University_Physics_(OpenStax)/University_Physics_III_-_Optics_and_Modern_Physics_(OpenStax)/11%3A_Particle_Physics_and_Cosmology/11.06%3A_The_Standard_ModelThe Standard Model describes interactions between particles through the strong nuclear, electromagnetic, and weak nuclear forces. Particle interactions are represented by Feynman diagrams. A Feynman d...The Standard Model describes interactions between particles through the strong nuclear, electromagnetic, and weak nuclear forces. Particle interactions are represented by Feynman diagrams. A Feynman diagram represents interactions between particles on a space-time graph. Electromagnetic forces act over a long range, but strong and weak forces act over a short range. These forces are transmitted between particles by sending and receiving bosons.
- https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nuclear_and_Particle_Physics/Nuclear_and_Particle_Physics_(Walet)/05%3A_Basic_Concepts_of_Theoretical_Particle_Physics/5.04%3A_Fluctuations_of_the_VacuumThe great problem is in understanding the meaning of virtual particles. Suppose we are studying the vacuum state in QED. We wish to describe this vacuum in terms of the states of no positrons, electro...The great problem is in understanding the meaning of virtual particles. Suppose we are studying the vacuum state in QED. We wish to describe this vacuum in terms of the states of no positrons, electrons and photons (the naive vacuum). Since these particles interact we have short-lived states where e+e− pairs, and photons, and .... appear for a short while and disappear again. This is also true for real particles.
- https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nuclear_and_Particle_Physics/Nuclear_and_Particle_Physics_(Walet)/05%3A_Basic_Concepts_of_Theoretical_Particle_Physics/5.03%3A_QED_-_Photon_Couples_to_e%E2%81%BAe%E2%81%BBWe know that electrons and positrons have charge and thus we need to include electrodynamics in the relativistic quantum theory of the electron. That is even more clear when we take into account that ...We know that electrons and positrons have charge and thus we need to include electrodynamics in the relativistic quantum theory of the electron. That is even more clear when we take into account that an electron and positron can annihilate by emitting two photons (the well-known 511 keV lines).
- https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/College_Physics/College_Physics_1e_(OpenStax)/33%3A_Particle_Physics/33.02%3A_The_Four_Basic_ForcesThere are only four distinct basic forces in all of nature. This is a remarkably small number considering the myriad phenomena they explain. Particle physics is intimately tied to these four forces. C...There are only four distinct basic forces in all of nature. This is a remarkably small number considering the myriad phenomena they explain. Particle physics is intimately tied to these four forces. Certain fundamental particles, called carrier particles, carry these forces, and all particles can be classified according to which of the four forces they feel.
