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- https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/University_Physics_(OpenStax)/University_Physics_III_-_Optics_and_Modern_Physics_(OpenStax)/11%3A_Particle_Physics_and_Cosmology/11.02%3A_Introduction_to_Particle_PhysicsThe four fundamental forces of nature are, in order of strength: strong nuclear, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and gravitational. Quarks interact via the strong force, but leptons do not. Both quark ...The four fundamental forces of nature are, in order of strength: strong nuclear, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and gravitational. Quarks interact via the strong force, but leptons do not. Both quark and leptons interact via the electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational forces. Elementary particles are classified into fermions and boson. Fermions have half-integral spin and obey the exclusion principle. Bosons have integral spin and do not obey this principle.
- https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/University_Physics_(OpenStax)/University_Physics_III_-_Optics_and_Modern_Physics_(OpenStax)/09%3A_Condensed_Matter_Physics/9.02%3A_Types_of_Molecular_BondsMolecules form by two main types of bonds: the ionic bond and the covalent bond. An ionic bond transfers an electron from one atom to another, and a covalent bond shares the electrons. The energy chan...Molecules form by two main types of bonds: the ionic bond and the covalent bond. An ionic bond transfers an electron from one atom to another, and a covalent bond shares the electrons. The energy change associated with ionic bonding depends on three main processes: the ionization of an electron from one atom, the acceptance of the electron by the second atom, and the Coulomb attraction of the resulting ions. Covalent bonds involve space-symmetric wave functions.
- https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Quantum_Mechanics/Quantum_Mechanics_III_(Chong)/04%3A_Identical_Particles/4.01%3A_Particle_Exchange_SymmetryIt turns out that the elementary particles that “carry” the fundamental forces are all bosons: these are the photons (elementary particles of light, which carry the electromagnetic force), gluons (ele...It turns out that the elementary particles that “carry” the fundamental forces are all bosons: these are the photons (elementary particles of light, which carry the electromagnetic force), gluons (elementary particles that carry the strong nuclear force, responsible for binding protons and neutrons together), and W and Z bosons (particles that carry the weak nuclear force responsible for beta decay).
